Answer: Hydropower & Kyoto Protocol
Hydropower is renewable energy derived from flowing or falling water. It converts the potential and kinetic energy of water into electricity using turbines and generators. It is one of the oldest and most reliable forms of renewable energy.
Principle of Operation
Water stored at height (dam) has potential energy. When released, it flows downward gaining kinetic energy. This high-velocity water strikes turbine blades, rotating them. The turbine shaft connects to a generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
Formula: P = ρ × g × h × Q × η
Where: P = Power, ρ = water density, g = gravity, h = head (height), Q = flow rate, η = efficiency
Types of Hydropower Plants
| Type |
Description |
Capacity |
| Large Hydro |
Major dams with reservoirs |
>25 MW |
| Small Hydro |
Run-of-river plants |
2-25 MW |
| Mini Hydro |
Small-scale, local grids |
100 kW - 2 MW |
| Micro Hydro |
Village/household level |
<100 kW |
| Pumped Storage |
Energy storage system |
Variable |
Advantages of Hydropower
- Clean Energy: No direct emissions during operation
- Renewable: Water cycle continuously replenishes
- Reliable: Can operate 24/7, unlike solar/wind
- Long Lifespan: Plants can operate 50-100 years
- Grid Stability: Can quickly adjust output (peaking power)
- Multipurpose: Irrigation, flood control, water supply
- Energy Storage: Pumped storage acts as giant battery
Disadvantages
- High initial capital cost and long construction time
- Environmental impact: habitat disruption, fish migration
- Displacement of communities (rehabilitation issues)
- Sedimentation reduces reservoir capacity over time
- Dependent on rainfall/water availability
Hydropower in India
- Installed Capacity: ~47 GW (including pumped storage)
- Potential: 145 GW exploitable potential
- Major Projects: Tehri (2400 MW), Koyna, Bhakra-Nangal, Sardar Sarovar
- States: Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, J&K, NE states
The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty adopted on December 11, 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It entered into force on February 16, 2005 and was the first legally binding agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Key Features
- Binding Targets: 37 industrialized (Annex I) countries committed to reduce emissions by average 5.2% below 1990 levels during first commitment period (2008-2012)
- Second Period: 2013-2020 with new targets (Doha Amendment)
- Principle: Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)
- Differentiation: Developing countries (Non-Annex I) including India had no binding targets
Flexible Mechanisms
| Mechanism |
Description |
| Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) |
Developed countries invest in emission reduction projects in developing countries, earning Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) that count toward their targets |
| Joint Implementation (JI) |
Developed countries earn credits by funding emission reduction projects in other developed countries |
| Emissions Trading (ET) |
Countries can trade emission permits - those exceeding targets can buy credits from those who have surplus |
Significance of Kyoto Protocol
- First Binding Treaty: Established legal framework for international climate action
- Carbon Markets: Created global carbon trading system worth billions
- Technology Transfer: CDM facilitated clean tech transfer to developing countries
- India's Benefit: Over 1500 CDM projects, 2nd largest beneficiary after China
- Foundation: Laid groundwork for Paris Agreement (2015)
Limitations
- USA: Never ratified despite being major emitter
- Canada: Withdrew in 2012
- Limited Coverage: Only ~15% of global emissions covered
- No Developing Country Targets: China, India had no obligations
- Modest Impact: Global emissions continued to rise
Legacy: Kyoto Protocol demonstrated that binding international climate agreements are possible and created institutional frameworks (carbon markets, MRV systems) that continue under the Paris Agreement. Its principle of CBDR remains relevant in current climate negotiations.
Sources: Module 1, 2, 4 Notes | UNFCCC | MNRE | IEA